A Century of Tensions: Roots of the Divide
The Kurdish-Turkish conflict is fundamentally a struggle over identity, territory, and political recognition, tracing its origins back to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent establishment of the modern Turkish Republic in the 1920s. The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) briefly promised an autonomous Kurdistan, a promise quickly abandoned by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which finalized Turkey's borders.
The new Republic, under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, pursued a rigid policy of Turkish nationalism, actively suppressing Kurdish identity, language, and culture, and referring to Kurds as "Mountain Turks." This systematic denial of ethnic identity fueled resentment and led to several early Kurdish rebellions, all brutally put down.
The Rise of the PKK and the Armed Struggle
The modern phase of the conflict began in earnest with the formation of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) in 1978 by Abdullah Öcalan. Initially an ostensibly Marxist-Leninist organization, the PKK launched its armed insurgency against the Turkish state in 1984, demanding an independent Kurdish state. The group's stated goals have evolved over time to a call for democratic confederalism and greater cultural and political autonomy within Turkey, but its designation as a terrorist organization by Turkey, the US, and the EU remains unchanged.
The decades that followed saw a devastating cycle of violence, resulting in the deaths of over 40,000 people, primarily in Turkey's impoverished southeast. Turkey's response involved massive military operations, the displacement of millions of villagers, and the imposition of emergency rule, hardening the divide between the state and the Kurdish population.
Failed Peacemaking: The Cycle of Hope and Collapse
Periods of relative calm and attempts at political resolution have consistently been overshadowed by renewed violence. The most significant effort, the "Solution Process" (or Peace Process), was launched by the government of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in 2013. It included secret talks with Öcalan (imprisoned since 1999) and a ceasefire.
- The Collapse: This process tragically collapsed in mid-2015 following escalating tensions and a series of attacks, including the bombing of a peace rally in Ankara. Both sides blamed the other, leading to a return to full-scale military confrontation. The failure demonstrated the deep lack of trust and the difficulty of integrating a political solution with Turkey's deeply entrenched security establishment.
The Syrian Factor: A Transnational Dimension
The Syrian Civil War dramatically internationalized the conflict. The emergence of the YPG (People's Protection Units), the dominant Kurdish militia in northeastern Syria (Rojava), which Turkey views as an extension of the PKK, became a flashpoint.
- Security vs. Geopolitics: For Ankara, the establishment of an autonomous, PKK-linked Kurdish entity on its southern border represents an existential security threat.
- Military Incursions: Turkey has launched multiple major military operations (e.g., Operation Peace Spring) into northern Syria, specifically targeting the YPG, which paradoxically had been a key U.S. ally in the fight against ISIS. This complex dynamic has frequently strained relations between Ankara and its NATO allies.
Domestic Political Fallout: The HDP and Democratic Struggle
Within Turkey, the Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP), a pro-Kurdish political party that also champions minority rights and democratic principles, has played a crucial but precarious role.
- The Political Arm: The HDP has successfully crossed Turkey's high electoral threshold and entered parliament, offering a democratic path for Kurdish political representation.
- State Repression: Despite its democratic mandate, the Turkish government frequently accuses the HDP of being the "political wing of the PKK." This has resulted in the arrests of thousands of HDP members, including former co-chairs Selahattin Demirtaş and Figen Yüksekdağ, and ongoing legal efforts to officially ban the party, further limiting the scope for political dialogue.
The Iranian and Iraqi Dimensions
The conflict is not isolated:
- Iraq: The semi-autonomous Kurdish Regional Government (KRG) in northern Iraq is a relatively stable, yet contested, entity. Turkey maintains military bases there and conducts cross-border operations against the PKK cells based in the Qandil Mountains.
- Iran: The presence of the PJAK (Party of Free Life of Kurdistan), a group affiliated with the PKK, on the Iranian border, creates a mutual, albeit often tacit, security concern for both Tehran and Ankara. Iran, like Turkey, faces its own challenges with its Kurdish population's demands for greater rights. The instability on the shared borders affects regional trade and security protocols.
Outlook: A Long Road to Stability
The Kurdish-Turkish conflict remains deeply entrenched. While military solutions have proven incapable of eliminating the root causes, the political space for dialogue is currently narrow.
Any lasting solution requires a multi-pronged approach: a genuine commitment by Ankara to expand democratic rights and cultural recognition for its Kurdish citizens, a de-escalation of armed activities by the PKK, and a regional framework that respects the borders of sovereign states while acknowledging the legitimate aspirations of the Kurdish nation.
Until the underlying issues of identity and political representation are addressed through peaceful political means, the cycle of violence will continue to be a defining factor in the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East.